Francis Bacon (1561-1626) (SW & BB) Francis Bacon was an English scientist, lawyer, and philosopher. His political career included being Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Most importantly, Bacon is recognized for his groundbreaking work in the field of science. His greatest contribution was the development of the inductive method, also known as the empirical method. This method supported the use of experiments as a source to acquire knowledge. Some of his most notable works include New Atlantis and Novum Organum, which both outlined new ways of explaining scientific and enlightened ideas to the educated public. Bacon’s development of the empirical method profoundly influenced the scientific community because it was the foundation for the scientific method and it is commonly used in modern science.
Nicolaus Copernicus was an astronomer and theologian who pemranently altered humanity's perception of the universe. Born in 1743, Copernicus lived in a time in which intellectual conformity was vital for good standing in the church-dominated academia of Europe. Having attained a role in the workings of the Catholic Church, Copernicus, with good intentions, sought to correct the over-complicated and problematic geocentric system that had dominated astronomy for much of history. His reforms to the system introduced a sun-centered model for the universe, which caused one of the greatest controversies in the history of science. To this day, Copernicus's system forms the basis for the common understanding of Astronomy.
Click here to learn more about Nicolaus Copernicus.
Descartes, Rene (SW & BB) (1596-1650) Rene Descartes was a notable French philosopher and mathematician during the Scientific Revolution. Descartes has been named the founder of modern philosophy because through his desire to acquire true knowledge, he rejected all information that could be doubted and then re-established the information to have a firm foundation. Secondly, Descartes recognized that geometrical figures could be expressed as algebraic equations. This relationship led to the formation of the Cartesian Coordinate Plane, which is named in his honor. Rene Descartes’ lasting mathematical legacy is that through the discovery of analytical geometry he laid the foundation on which Newton would base his infinitesimal calculus. Descartes’s discoveries profoundly influenced and aided the later men of the Scientific Revolution. Lastly, Descartes’s Meditations on First Philosophy, continues to be used as one of the standard texts for university philosophy departments.
Galilei, Galileo (1564-1642) (RM MD and BE) Galileo was not only an Italian physicist, but also a mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. He played a very large role in the Scientific Revolution with his improvements to the telescope and his belief in Copernicanism. Using his newly improved telescope, he discovered the phases of Venus and the four largest moons of Jupiter. Galileo caused controversy when he concluded that the Earth and the planets move around the stationary Sun because this did not fit with the Church’s doctrine. Galileo had the one of the largest impacts on the development of Modern Science, therefore earning the title “Father of Modern Science”.
Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician. He worked in the field of optics and improved a version of the refracting telescope. He mentioned his findings to Galileo, who was working on his own telescope. He also affected the time period because he incorporated religious motives into arguments and scientific reasoning. He is important because of his idea of eponymous law of planetary motion which was used to provide one of the foundations for Newton’s theory of universal gravity.
Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) (EK & WE) Isaac Newton, also known as the father of modern science, was an English scientist and philosopher who is considered by many to be the most influential scientist ever. In his most famous work, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton describes the idea of universal gravitation and the three laws of motion. The idea of universal gravitation stated that the amount of gravitational force of an object is directly related to the mass of the object. The first law of motion says that an object will remain stationary until another force moves it; the second law states that forces produce accelerations that are proportional to the mass of a body. The final law states that for every action a force produces, there is a reaction of equal force. Along with these revolutionary ideas, Newton influenced the Scientific Revolution in may other ways, such as inventing the reflecting telescope. Today, his discovery of calculus continues be used by students and scientists alike. Click here to learn more about Isaac Newton and the impact he had.
The Enlightenment
Deism (EK & WE) Deism was an influential theological philosophy that proclaimed the existence of a god that does not interfere with his own creation, allowing it to function largely on its own. Deism existed before the enlightenment, but it gained great momentum during the era of enlightenment, particularly from the 1770’s on. Deism was most noticeable in Britain, France, Germany, and America. Deists strongly disagree with Atheists, who don’t believe in the existence of a God at all. Deism was a radical idea for the time because the people believed the universe operated according to natural laws and God din't interfere with daily life. This differed from Calvinist views who believed that salvation was pre-destined. Many of America’s Founding Fathers, like George Washington and James Madison, were deists.
Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher known for his work before the Enlightenment period. He is most recognized for the political ideas discussed in his book Leviathan, published in 1651, which defined the idea of the social contract theory. Hobbes argued that the basic and true nature of man was cruel and greedy. He believed that without the presence of social and government order mankind would live like beasts. Following these thoughts, Hobbes strongly advocated that man should be controlled by governmental rules, otherwise crime would rise up and overtake mankind. The form of government that Hobbes argued for was widely known as absolutism. Hobbes's political ideas were influential in the development of western political philosophy.
Locke, John (1632- 1704) (RM MD and BE) John Locke was an English philosopher who was the one of the most influential thinkers of his time. His most well-known idea was that of having a constitutional or a limited monarchy that protected human liberties and rights. His belief in the protection of human liberties and rights evolved the way that people saw a government; it was no longer focused on government power but was now focused on the protection of the people. His perception of human nature was very different from other thinkers of his time because he believed that human nature was defined by reason and tolerance and was not just selfish. Even though he came before the Enlightenment period, John Locke was monumental in the way that the philosophes thought and the ideas that they had. John Locke also had a profound influence on the American Declaration of Independence. To learn more about Locke, click here.
Montesquieu, Baron de (1689-1755) (EK & WE) Baron de Montesquieu was a French philosopher and political thinker who greatly influenced the Enlightenment. He is most famous for his ideas about separation of powers. He believed there should be an executive branch, which would enforce laws, a legislative branch, which would create laws, and a judicial branch, which would interpret laws. In his book, The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu also wrote about the three main forms of government, monarchies, republics, and despotisms. He believed that a separation of powers was the only way to ensure the liberties of the people. Montesquieu’s works also influenced the humanitarianism movement with his contempt of slavery, cruel punishments, religious intolerance, and despotism. Montesquieu’s three branch system of government greatly influenced the Founding Fathers of America and the way they set up the new American government.
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Rousseau, Jean Jacques (SW & BB) Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva and profoundly influenced the thinking of the Enlightenment philosophes. In his book, The Social Contract, Rousseau emphasized his ideas regarding the purpose of government rather than the form of government. One of his important ideas was the belief that governments should be structured to derive authority from the people. Further, Rousseau advocated the acceptance of the idea of general will, or the best course of action in the government that harms the least amount of people, rather than the will of the majority. Rousseau's greatest achievement was his impact on political theories. Unfortunately, Rousseau's political ideas were radicalized by Robespierre during the Reign of Terror (French Revolution). Rousseau's lasting legacy is that his political theories have been used to justify dictatorships, democracies, and all other forms of government.
A salon is a gathering, usually hosted by upper class women, where the hostesses pass knowledge and skills on to younger women. Salons brought many people from the upper and middle class as well as intellectual elites together, allowing them to influence each other. These gatherings, which were began in the 16th and 17th centuries in France, served as a way for women to have discussions free of any censorship. These discussions invoked critical thinking and learning that allowed women of this era to be able to form an educated, public opinion. This progression in thought proved to be positive as the enlightenment advanced. This was also a large step for women’s education and promoting the idea that women were not subordinate to men.
Smith, Adam (1723- 1790) (EK & WE) Adam Smith was an influential economist and intellectual who formulated the basic principles of capitalism. Born in 1723 and living until 1790, Adam Smith lived in the era of the Enlightenment, where intellectuals argued for the freedom of the human mind and soul. Among his greatest works was his book, The Wealth of Nations, which outlined the basic principles and theory of capitalistic economics. Among the many principles that he formulated were those of a limited and constrained government, and the ideas of unregulated economic systems in his theory of ‘laissez faire’ economics. He also came up with the natural law of supply and demand; as supply increases and demand decreases, prices drop. His capitalist ideas helped influence some of the ideas of economist Karl Marx. His understanding of human nature, and his understanding of economic systems revolutionized the conventional ideas of economics, and formed the basis for today’s economic systems.
Voltaire (1694-1778) (RM MD and BE) Voltaire was an enlightenment writer in France. He believed in freedom of speech and the separation of church and state. Writing over 2,000 books and pamphlets, he was a big supporter of social reform. He affected the time period because his ideas influenced Frederick the Great’s ideas about government. He is important to not only European history but to the foundation of America because his ideas about freedom influenced the foundation of the United States. To learn more about Voltaire, click here.
Political Developments Catherine the Great (1729-1796) (SW & BB) Catherine the Great was the most celebrated and the longest-ruling female tsarina of Russia, reigning from 1762 until her death in 1796. Although Catherine was born in Prussia, she became empress of Russia as a result of her marriage to Peter III, the heir to the Russian throne. After the Seven Year's war, Catherine conspired a military coup against her husband; he was assassinated allowing Catherine to become the tsarina. Catherine's reign was considered a golden age for Russia because she reformed many features of Russian society. Some of the reforms she made included improving the educational system, reducing the use of torture, and promoting religious toleration. Due to Catherine’s “enlightened” nature, she was able to westernize the Russian nobles and place her country as one of the strongest European nations.
To learn more about Catherine the Great click here
Frederick II, the Great (1712-1786) (EK & WE) Frederick II, also known as the Great, was king of Prussia from 1740 until his death in 1786 and is one of the great examples of an enlightened despot, which is a form of absolute monarchy influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment. Building on the work of his father, Frederick William I, Frederick led Prussia with the army. He attacked the weakened Austria in 1740 when Maria Theresa came to power, which violated the Pragmatic Sanction that his father had signed. He was extremely tolerant when it came to religion and philosophical ideas; he allowed his subjects to believe whatever they wanted to. He promoted the education of his people, abolished the torture of prisoners, and promoted the agriculture and industry in Prussia. Although he improved many aspects of the lives of the people, Frederick never tried to change the social structure; the nobility was given even more control over their serfs. Under Frederick, Prussia’s population doubled and became a great European power.
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Joseph II (1741- 1790) (EK & WE) Joseph II of Austria was the ambitious and enlightened ruler of Austria during the age of enlightenment. Born to Empress Maria Theresa in 1741, Joseph reigned as emperor of Austria from 1780 to 1790, after its disastrous loss of the territory of Silesia to Prussia, which seemed to scream for internal reform. In his time he pursued many enlightened policies to improve his country, like freeing serfs and tolerating those not of the Catholic faith. He also sought to reduce Catholic influence in his country’s politics. Most outrageous of all, he even sought to have peasants under nobles paid in currency, which saw universal backlash. Ultimately, many of his reforms were revoked after his death, under his brother Leopold II, because most people did not agree with his reforms. His shining reign served as an incredible example of enlightened rulers bringing their countries into a more modern state.
Pugachev's rebellion(1774-1775)(RM MD and BE) Pugachev’s rebellion, the main revolt in a series of rebellions, was caused by Catherine II’s support of the nobles’ power over the serfs in return for the nobles’ cooperation. The angry serfs rose, demanding reforms like the abolishment of serfdom, lower taxes for the peasants, and the elimination military service. Though government forces were delayed in acting upon the rebels, they were quickly able to suppress the rebellion and restore order. Emelian Pugachev, the leader of the rebellion, was caught and executed in 1775, his reforms dying alongside him. After the rebellion, Catherine, seeing that the peasants were dangerous, allowed the nobility to tighten their grasp on the serfs and extend serfdom. Being one of the largest peasant revolts in Russian history, there have been many legends and stories based off of Pugachev’s rebellion.
Click here to learn more about Pugachev’s Rebellion.
Seven Years' War (1756-1663) (RM) During the Seven Years’ War, Austria entered into an alliance with Russia and France against Prussia. The war was caused by Austria attempting to gain the province of Silesia from Prussia, which it had lost in the War of Austrian Succession. After years of inconclusive fighting Frederick, king of Prussia, made peace with Russia and drove out the Austrians. This war ultimately influenced the main political powers during the Enlightened period. Austria, Prussia, and Russia rose as the major European nations and their Enlightened leaders helped encourage progress in education and religious toleration.
Walpole, Sir Robert (SW & BB) Sir Robert Walpole was born in Houghton Hall, Norfolk in 1676. During his political career, he served under King George I and King George II. Due to his administrative skills and superior service in his offices he quickly rose through the ranks of the English government. After the retirement of Lord Townshed, Sir Robert Walpole became the leader of the cabinet. As the possessor of the majority of the power in the cabinet, Sir Walpole became the first unofficial English prime minister. Sir Robert Walpole’s influence declined when he was unable to avoid military actions against the Prince of Wales, King George II’ son. Sir Walpole’s lasting legacy is that he was able to unofficially establish the role of the prime minister in England.
Cottage industry, a term used prior to the industrial revolution where the manufacturing of products were done mainly at home by multiple people and then sold in the market place. Cottage industries were used predominately in the 17th and 18th centuries because it could bypass the restrictions of the guild system. This method had many benefits; pre-urban city residents could save time by working at home instead of traveling to work, peasants could quickly obtain money, more jobs were created, and some of the first jobs for common women. Cottage industries were one of the leading factors that helped pave the way to the Industrial Revolution.
To learn more about the cottage industry click here
crop rotation (EK & WE)
Crop rotation is a farming method that was invented in some early Roman or Asian culture. Crop rotation is when farmers rotate the crops they grow through different fields so that all of the nutrients in the soil aren’t used up. When farmers grew crops in the same field every year, the soil was depleted of certain nutrients. So, the farmers would rotate the crops every year so that the soil wasn’t being depleted of the same nutrients every year. If cotton was planted in the field one year, the next a farmer might plant beans to help put nitrogen back into the soil. Crop rotation also helped farmers with pest control and soil erosion. These improvements in farming helped farmers to grow more and produce more of a profit.
Enclosure Movement (SW & BB) The enclosure movement took place in England during the period from 1760 to 1820. The movement ended the long held English agricultural right of being able to graze animals and farm on communal acreage. Once open fields were fenced off, they ceased to be common land for all English citizens. Then, only the owner or owners with the deed had the lawful right to use the enclosed land. This decrease in farming and grazing land drastically altered the English demographic structure because it created a working class without rights of property usage. The men, women, and families of the landless class were forced to migrate to the cities where factories were being built. The enclosure movement fueled the Industrial Revolution because it forced the working class citizens to make a drastic lifestyle change and move toward the cities and factories to find work.
A movement founded by Philipp Jakob Spener and originating within the Protestants, pietism spanned from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century. Pietism focuses on individual religiousness and the process of living a Christian life. This idea was formed because people were concerned with the lack of enthusiasm from Protestants during the Reformation. Pietism reinforced the Lutheran idea of priesthood of all believers; it encouraged the zealous participation of everyone in religious activities. Influencing people like John Wesley and Alexander Mack, pietism played a large role in the development of the Methodist and Brethren movement. Many of the modern day churches and denominations are linked to Pietist teachings.
The Scientific Revolution
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) (SW & BB)To learn more click here
Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473-1543) (EK & WE)
Click here to learn more about Nicolaus Copernicus.
Descartes, Rene (SW & BB) (1596-1650)
Click HERE to learn more.
Galilei, Galileo (1564-1642) (RM MD and BE)
Galileo was not only an Italian physicist, but also a mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher. He played a very large role in the Scientific Revolution with his improvements to the telescope and his belief in Copernicanism. Using his newly improved telescope, he discovered the phases of Venus and the four largest moons of Jupiter. Galileo caused controversy when he concluded that the Earth and the planets move around the stationary Sun because this did not fit with the Church’s doctrine. Galileo had the one of the largest impacts on the development of Modern Science, therefore earning the title “Father of Modern Science”.
To learn more about Galileo, click here.
Kepler, Johannes (1571-1630) (RM MD and BE)
Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and mathematician. He worked in the field of optics and improved a version of the refracting telescope. He mentioned his findings to Galileo, who was working on his own telescope. He also affected the time period because he incorporated religious motives into arguments and scientific reasoning. He is important because of his idea of eponymous law of planetary motion which was used to provide one of the foundations for Newton’s theory of universal gravity.
To learn more about Kepler click here.
Newton, Isaac (1642-1727) (EK & WE)
Click here to learn more about Isaac Newton and the impact he had.
The Enlightenment
Deism (EK & WE)Click here to learn more about deism.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) (SW & BB)
To learn more about Thomas Hobbes click here
Locke, John (1632- 1704) (RM MD and BE)
To learn more about Locke, click here.
Montesquieu, Baron de (1689-1755) (EK & WE)
Click here to learn more about Baron de Montesquieu.
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (SW & BB)
Click HERE to learn more.
salon (RM MD and BE)
To learn more about salons, click here.
Smith, Adam (1723- 1790) (EK & WE)
Click here to learn more about Adam Smith.
Voltaire (1694-1778) (RM MD and BE)
Voltaire was an enlightenment writer in France. He believed in freedom of speech and the separation of church and state. Writing over 2,000 books and pamphlets, he was a big supporter of social reform. He affected the time period because his ideas influenced Frederick the Great’s ideas about government. He is important to not only European history but to the foundation of America because his ideas about freedom influenced the foundation of the United States.
To learn more about Voltaire, click here.
Political Developments
Catherine the Great (1729-1796) (SW & BB)
To learn more about Catherine the Great click here
Frederick II, the Great (1712-1786) (EK & WE)
Click here to learn more about Frederick the Great.
Joseph II (1741- 1790) (EK & WE)
Click here for more info on Joesph II.
Pugachev's rebellion (1774-1775) (RM MD and BE)
Click here to learn more about Pugachev’s Rebellion.
Seven Years' War (1756-1663) (RM)
During the Seven Years’ War, Austria entered into an alliance with Russia and France against Prussia. The war was caused by Austria attempting to gain the province of Silesia from Prussia, which it had lost in the War of Austrian Succession. After years of inconclusive fighting Frederick, king of Prussia, made peace with Russia and drove out the Austrians. This war ultimately influenced the main political powers during the Enlightened period. Austria, Prussia, and Russia rose as the major European nations and their Enlightened leaders helped encourage progress in education and religious toleration.
Click here to learn more.
Walpole, Sir Robert (SW & BB)
Click HERE to learn more.
The Life of the People
cottage industry (SW & BB)
Cottage industry, a term used prior to the industrial revolution where the manufacturing of products were done mainly at home by multiple people and then sold in the market place. Cottage industries were used predominately in the 17th and 18th centuries because it could bypass the restrictions of the guild system. This method had many benefits; pre-urban city residents could save time by working at home instead of traveling to work, peasants could quickly obtain money, more jobs were created, and some of the first jobs for common women. Cottage industries were one of the leading factors that helped pave the way to the Industrial Revolution.
To learn more about the cottage industry click here
crop rotation (EK & WE)
Click here to learn more about crop rotation.
Enclosure Movement (SW & BB)
Click HERE to learn more.
Pietism (RM MD and BE)
A movement founded by Philipp Jakob Spener and originating within the Protestants, pietism spanned from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century. Pietism focuses on individual religiousness and the process of living a Christian life. This idea was formed because people were concerned with the lack of enthusiasm from Protestants during the Reformation. Pietism reinforced the Lutheran idea of priesthood of all believers; it encouraged the zealous participation of everyone in religious activities. Influencing people like John Wesley and Alexander Mack, pietism played a large role in the development of the Methodist and Brethren movement. Many of the modern day churches and denominations are linked to Pietist teachings.
Click here to learn more about pietism.