Unit+II

=**__French Wars of Religion__**= **Catherine de Medici (1519-1589)** Catherine de Medici was an Italian noblewoman who became the Queen of France, from 1547 until 1559, through her marriage to King Henry II. After King Henry II of France died, Catherin e was forced into political and religious problems. Catherine, now the regent of France, was able to control her three sons reign as if she was k ing. She also was one of the main instigators of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre where thousands of Huguenots were killed and was the person who called for the attempted murder of Admiral Coligny. Catherine's actions could be seen as a desperate act to keep the Valois monarchy in power by trying to eliminate the religious threats to the monarchy. Without her controlling her sons reign it is likely the the Valois monarchy would not have stayed in power. Catherine de Medici was partly responsible for starting the French religious wars.

To learn more about Catherine de Medici click here.

**Edict of Nantes** The Edict of Nantes was issu ed on April 13, 1598 by Henry IV of France. When Henry IV issued the edict, he was attempting to end the French Wars of Religion, which revolved around both political and religious motivations. In the act, the Huguenots, French Calvinists, were allowed religious freedom in specified cities and were granted the authority to fortify those cities to prevent another massacre, like the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre. The Edict of Nantes was the first long lasting document that established religious tolerance in Europe. In the edict, Henry IV was acting as a politique by making religious conformity subordinate to the need of a unified nation, which was a revolutionary idea during this era. This allowed Henry IV to unite France under the idea that the authority of a country’s leader holds a nation together, rather than religion. The idea of religious tolerance, which was established by this edict, can be seen in modern western civilization.

Click [|HERE]to learn more about the Edict of Nantes

**Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)** **(13 December 1553 – 14 May 1610)** After the War of the Three Henrys and the French Wars of Religion, Henry IV became the first Bourbon king of France. Since Henry was a Huguenot many did want him as the heir to the French throne; this concern initiated the War of the Three Henrys. Due to his religion, Calvinism, he was forced to convert to Catholicism during his reign to keep control over France, whose religion was was Roman Catholicism. In trying to create a peaceful environment in France, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which gave the Huguenots the right to worship and fortify specified cities. Due to Henry’s step towards religious tolerance, he was able to create a stable environment in which the French Renaissance could flourish and allow absolutism, literature, and art to evolve.

Click [|here] to learn more about Henry.

//**politique**// The word politique is a term that was used throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It describes a person who is not on either extremes in religion, but someone who is moderate and in the middle of the two extremists, and compromised their religion for their monarchy. King Henry IV is a great example of a politique because he took the middle road in religion by the Edict of Nates which gave the Protestants rights to practice their religion. Even though in the beginning of his reign he was Protestant, he then changed to Catholicism himself, compromising his religion so that he could keep France from collapsing. This is contributed to the era because it resulted in the end of many religious conflicts because people gave up their religious beliefs for their monarchy. Many great leaders were polititques and were very significant because they helped to create religious peace which lead to the growth of their monarchy.

Click [|here] to learn more about the term politique.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre was a slaughter of Protestants in Paris by the Catholics. Many Hugenots were gathered in Paris to celebrate the marriage of Henry III of Navarre and Margaret, the king's sister. After the attempted murder of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny, the political and military leader of the Hugenots, violence erupted. The massacres spread through Paris and into surrounding areas. The massacre greatly affected the French Wars of religion and the Hugenots lost many important leaders. This was one of the worst religious massacres in European history.
 * St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1527) **

To learn more about St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, click [|here].

**__Philip II vs. Elizabeth I__**
**Act of Uniformity** The Act of Uniformity was approved on May 8, 1559 by Queen Elizabeth of England. In the Act of Uniformity, everyone was required to attend church or pay a fine. Secondly, the decree required all services to follow the revised //Book of Common Prayer// and the service to be in English. Through this act, Elizabeth moved the Anglican Church towards Protestantism and found a middle road in which Catholics and Protestants could worship in the same church. Since Elizabeth attempted to unite the Catholics and the Protestants, she was able to establish a somewhat stable religious environment. The decree also allowed more religious tolerance of different Christian dominations because of Elizabeth’s vague wording in //The Book of Common Prayer//. The Act of Uniformity still influences the Anglican Church today because it continues to use //The Book of Common Prayer// in its services.

Click [|HERE]to learn more about the Act of Uniformity

**Battle of Lepanto** (1571) The battle of Lepanto was the decisive naval engagement that broke the armada of Turkey that had threatened Christendom in the Mediterranean. It occurred in 1571, between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League. The battle was responsible for the final defeat of Turkish advances in the Mediterranean, freeing the hands of the powerful European nations to focus on the growing religious turmoil in their own continent. In history, it marked the point at which the Ottoman Empire would begin the wane in the face of a Europe coming to dominate other cultures across the globe, overshadowing the economic success of the Turks.

Click here to learn more about the battle of Lepanto.

**Duke of Alva (1507-1582)** Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alva was a Spanish general and governor of the Spanish Netherlands under Philip II's rule. He was notorious because of his harsh and cruel rule there and his role in the execution of his political opponents and the massacre of several cities. Since Philip II was a major advocate of Catholicism, so he sent the Duke of Alva to the Spanish Netherlands to pacify all the Protestants which was just mass killings of Protestant rebels to stop the Dutch revolt. The Duke of Alva's cruelty towards the Protestants in the Netherlands was one of the reasons why Elizabeth I helped the Protestant rebels and fight against Spain in the Dutch revolt. The Duke of Alva's pacification in the Spanish Netherlands was one of the deciding factors in Elizabeth's decision to challenge Spain and gain more Protestant support.

To learn more about The Duke of Alva click [|here]

**Dutch revolt (1568-1609)** The Dutch Revolt, also known as the Revolt of the Netherlands, took place in the Low Countries which now is include Belgium, the Netherlands, northern France, and western Germany. It was a revolt between the Seventeen Protestant Provinces against the religious policies of Roman Catholicism the were inforced by Charles V and his son Phillip II. These outbursts of violence were the beginning of the Thirty Years War and ultimately lead to the independence of the Dutch Republic. They were led by William of Orange and was one of the first successions that were successful. This revolt is important because it led to the first modern era European republics. The result of the Dutch revolt was the Treaty of Munster and from that the Dutch gained their independence.

Click [|here] to learn more about the Dutch Revolt.

**Elizabeth I (1533-1603)** Elizabeth I, also known as the Virgin Queen because she never married, was the last of the Tudors to sit on the throne of England. The Elizabethan era, which is what her reign is referred to as, was a time of prosperity and peace for England. After assuming the throne from her fanatical Catholic half-sister, Mary, Elizabeth settled many issues between the Protestants and Catholics. The Elizabethan Settlement brought religious uniformity and peace to England. She also succeeded in defeating Phillip II’s Spanish Armada, thus securing her popularity among her people. Elizabeth helped bring England into a golden age where literature, theatre, and exploration flourished. Elizabeth’s achievements, like the founding of British colonies in America and the re-establishment of the Church of England, helped push England forward as one of the leading powers in the world.

Click here to learn more about Elizabeth I.

**Mary, Queen of Scots (1542- 1587)** Mary, Queen of Scots (r. 1542-1567) ruled as queen of Scotland after her father, King James V of Scots, died. She fled to England, seeking refuge with her first cousin once removed, Elizabeth I, after being forced to give up her throne. Mary had originally claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and many Catholics considered Mary to be the legitimate ruler of England because they did not accept the marriage of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Queen Elizabeth, seeing Mary as a threat, had her arrested; after 19 years in various prisons, Mary was finally executed for her involvement in plans to kill Elizabeth I. Many Catholics that considered her England's legitimate ruler also considered her a martyr after her execution. Following Elizabeth's death later in 1603, Mary's son was proclaimed King James I of England, therefore bringing the Stuart family to the throne. The coming of the Stuart line to the throne aided the development of the arts and sciences in England, contributing to the increase of fine arts and science studies in the Jacobean era.

To learn more about Mary, Queen of Scots, click [|here].

** Philip II ** (1527-1598)

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Phillip II was the long-lived and celebrated ruler of Spain and its dominions. His reign of Spain began in 1556, during a long era of religious strife in Europe. Over the course of his reign he played the role of Crusader for the Catholic cause, fighting off the fleets of the Ottoman Empire in coordination with a Mediterranean alliance of states and working to annihilate the Huguenot factions within France. He played a substantial role in maintaining the far-flung Spanish empire in the New World, as he did Spanish claims in the Netherlands, though efforts there eventually failed. A natural imperialist, he was responsible for the Spanish invasion of Portugal, a land which he ruled for a time afterwards, and for an attempted invasion of England. To this day, his actions in maintaining Catholicism against Protestants, as well as Christianity itself against the Ottoman, are still remembered, and are responsible in part for upholding their vitality in Europe. ======

For more information on Phillip II, turn to this source HERE

**Spanish Armada, battle with (July 1588)**

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The battle with England and the Spanish Armada was Phillip II of Spain's attempt to overthrow Elizabeth I of England. Phillip was trying to stop the English involvement in the Spanish Netherlands and was trying to stop the English “sea dogs” in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. The Attack of the Spanish Armada was won by England in the English Channel due to the Spanish's lack of supplies and a storm which hit the Armada. After the attack of the Spanish Armada, the Spanish power was weakened and the English power was strengthen. This placed England and Elizabeth I in the top of the political powers in Europe. Due to the fact that the Spanish Armada was a war on ships, it changed and improved the ways commercial and military ships were designed. ======

To learn more about the Spanish Armada click here.
**William of Orange (the Silent) (1533–1584)** William of Orange (the Silent) was seen as founder and liberator of The Netherlands because of his work from the Dutch revolt. He was descended from a princely German family who exercised sovereign rights in the Low Countries 400 years before the accession of the House of Burgundy. He led the Dutch to several successes in the fight against the Spanish because William was part of Philip II's court he could pass on information to Protestant leaders. William of Orange's rebellion against Spain caused him to be labeled an outlaw by Philip II and he was later assassinated by Balthasar Gerard. William of Orange's work in the Dutch revolt allowed Protestantism control to be regained in most of the Netherlands and eventually the liberation of the United Provinces from Spain.

To learn more click [|here]

**__Thirty Years War__**
**Adolphus, Gustavus (1594-1638)** Gustavus Adolphus was the Protestant king of Sweden during the 30 year’s war in Europe. His reign took place during the turbulent years of religious strife in Europe, which saw the destruction or marginalization of many once powerful dynasties. Landing in the Catholic dominated Holy Roman Empire in 1630, he was very successful at invigorating the tired Protestant cause in the nation, and by consequence the rest of Europe. Gustavus expanded the Empire of Sweden deep into Europe, beginning a golden age for his country. Gustavus is remembered for turning the thirty years war in the Protestant’s favor, eventually allowing them to break the power of the Holy Roman Empire and set the stage for a stable religious peace for modern Europe to spring from.

Click here to learn more about Gustavus Adolphus.

**“defenestration of Prague” (1618)** Defenestration of Prague occurred in 1618 when Calvinist Bohemians revolted against Ferdinand's election and the decision made to stop construction on Protestant chapels on Catholic clergy's land. Calvinists feared that Ferdinand would try to eliminate Protestantism entirely, so they threw ministers of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor out the window. Miraculously, the ministers survived the fall. The defenestration of Prague was the beginning of the first phase of the Thirty Years war, the Bohemian Phase. Thirty Years War was the last war initiated by religious differences and caused populations to be cut almost in half, which left Europe in shambles.

Click [|here] to learn more about the defenestration of Prague.

**Ferdinand II (Hapsburg) (1578-1637)** Ferdinand II was the Holy Roman Emperor, king of Bohemia, and king of Hungary from 1617- 1637. During his reign, civil war erupted in Bohemia between Protestants and Catholics. Protestants were upset with Ferdinand because he ordered Protestant land to be turned over to the Catholics. The Defenestration of Prague was the Protestants’ response to this demand and the start of the civil war in Bohemia. Ferdinand allied with the Catholic League and eventually won the war in Bohemia. By supporting the Catholics, Ferdinand plunged the rest of Europe into the war and Germany was turned into a battleground for all of the other countries. Ferdinand’s actions sent the German economy into a state of despair, which would take years for it to climb out of. Click here to learn more about Ferdinand II.

The Peace of Westphalia was signed in 1648 in the towns of Munster and Osnabruck and ended the Thirty Years War. It was comprised of treaties between Spain, the Dutch Republic, Sweden, France, the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, and the German princes. Through the acceptance of the treaty, Calvinism was recognized under the terms of the Peace of Augsburg and the German states gained the right to make treaties and alliances. Both of these conditions assisted the religious and political shattering of the Holy Roman Empire. The resulting truce redistributed territory among countries which were involved in the war; as a result, France was able to rise as an international power. The conclusion of the Thirty Wars Year by the Peace of Westphalia ended the era of religious wars, but initiated a period where battles revolved around territorial disputes, which is still a major cause of war today.
 * Peace of Westphalia (1648) **

Click [|HERE]to learn more about the Peace of Westphalia.

**Thirty Years War (1618-1648)** The Thirty Years War, who's initial conflict was between the Protestants and Catholics but soon turned into a political war, was fought all across Europe but was mostly on German land. The political leaders were the Hapsburgs, the Dutch, Swedish, France, Holy Roman Empire and Spain. There were three religions that were fighting in the Thirty Years War, the Calvinist, Lutherans and Catholics, which showed that the Peace of Augsburg was not working. The Peace of Augusburg recognized Catholics and Lutherans but not Calvinism, many bishops were converting to Calvinism and leaders were fighting in the war because if they won they would gain more power and more geographical land from other countries. The Thirty Years War contributed to the extensive destruction of entire regions and the population decrease. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war, also resulted in Germany being decentralized, the Holy Roman Empire loosing power, Spain recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic and Calvinists being recognized as a religion. These changes have effected the relationships, power and geographical size between the European countries. Click here to learn more about the Thirty Years War.

**__16th and 17th Century Art and Literature__**
**Baroque style** The baroque style began around the 1600s in Rome and Italy and later spread throughout Europe. The word baroque means extravagantly ornate and convoluted in character or style. This style of painting, literature, sculpture, dance, music, and dramafocused mainly on the exaggeration of motion and clear attention to details. The style completely changed the architecture and form of art throughout Europe. The sculpture of David by Michelangelo is a still figure, but if you look at the David by Bernini it is full of movement which explains why it is a baroque piece. Still influencing modern art, baroque is a term that is used to describe art now a days.

Click [|here] to learn more about the Baroque style.


 * Michel de Montaigne (February 28, 1533 – September 13, 1592) **

Michel de Montaigne was born in the Aquitaine region of France in 1533 into a wealthy family. During the French Renaissance (late 15th to early 17th centuries), de Montaigne contributed to French literature; he popularized essays as a genre. Due to his ability to infect serious topics with anecdotes, he became known as the Father of Skepticism. Many of his contemporaries called him self-indulgent due to his statement of “I am myself the matter of my book”. Throughout modern history, Montaigne’s reliance on his own opinions and using them to comment on issues allowed him to be one of the most accessible authors of the French Renaissance. Due to his contribution to introducing essays as a new genre of literature, he opened new possibilities in which literary masterpieces could be created. Click [|HERE] to learn more about Michel de Montaigne

**Rijn, Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669)** Rembrandt van Rijn was a Dutch painter and etcher whose contributions to the Dutch Golden Age are considered some of the most important of the time. As seen throughout his paintings, such as The Abduction of Europa and his Self Portrait, as well as some of his etchings, like The Three Crosses and The Hundred Guilder Print, Rembrandt was a master at detail. Because his life was plagued by tragedy, such as the death of his children and first wife, Rembrandt’s artwork reflected dramatic and emotional scenes, likely inspired by his personal life. After his wife’s death in 1642, his work became more somber and biblical pieces were pulled from the New Testament instead of the Old Testament. Some historians speculate that Rembrandt had stereo blindness that helped him to flatten what he saw. Rembrandt’s artwork was very popular during his lifetime and his contributions to the Dutch Golden Age was very significant. His paintings and etchings are still critiqued by many today. Click here to learn more about Rembrandt.

Example of his work:

// The Night Watch //

** Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) **

Peter Paul Rubens was a Flemish artist who is known for his Counter-Reformation pieces of art. He emphasized color, movement, and sensuality in his paintings of mythological and allegorical subjects. His family fled Antwerp, where they were persecuted for being Calvinists, to Cologne. Rubens received a humanist education and entered the Guild of St. Luke after completing his education. In 1609, he was appointed court painter by Infanta Isabella and the Archduke of Austria. One of his most famous pupils was Anthony van Dyck, who became the leading Flemish portraitist. The term "Rubensian" or "Rubenesque", which refers to the painting of plus-sized women originates from Rubens.

Click here to learn more about Peter Paul Rubens.

Example of his work:

//The Elevation of the Cross//

** Vermeer, Johannes (1632-1675) **

A painting that is thought to be of Vermeer.



//Girl with a Pearl Earring// (one of Vermeer's most famous paintings)

Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675) was a Dutch painter whose paintings often depicted middle class life. Often called the "master of light", he was known for the use of interesting lighting in his paintings. Outside of his hometown, Delft, Vermeer was not very popular during his life due to the lack of paintings he created, and after his death, he became even more obscure. It was not until the mid-ninteenth century that he was rediscovered; at that time, several important Dutch artists began to copy the style of his works. Since then his reputation has grown considerably and he is now accepted as one of the greatest painters of the Dutch Golden Age. To learn more about Vermeer, click [|here].

**__France__**
**Absolutism** Absolutism was the immensely successful ideal of a supreme ruler governing absolutely over his people. It was very prevalent during the 17th century, a time in which many great empires were ruled by extremely powerful monarchs. Among those who adopted absolutist ideas whole-heatedly were Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia. In his time, Louis XIV had his advisers take great liberties with his country's economy, ensuring that as many exports and as few imports existed as possible. Both monarchs, upon centralizing and improving their standing armies, had great territorial gains over the course of their history. The ideal of abolsutism did eventually fade away with the rise of more democratic themes within government, but the magnificent achievements of this system helped build a series of great European empires that allowed for the flourishing of culture that defined Europe in the coming eras. [|HERE] is an interesting article on Absolutism.

**Cardinal Richelieu (9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642)** Armad Jean du Plessis, Cardinal de Richelieu, was born in Paris and was the last of three sons. During Cardinal Richelieu’s career, he was both a clergyman and statesmen in France. Due to Richelieu’s strong administrative skills, he soon became Louis XIII’s chief minister. During his career in service to Louis XIII, he exalted the king as the personification of the French state and curbed the power of the nobility. These actions allowed the French crown to become an absolute monarchy. Secondly, he introduced raison d’etat (reason of the state), which means that if one’s actions are in the interest of the state and do not follow God’s law, they will be pardoned. This new philosophy allowed Richelieu to conduct his anti-Hapsburg foreign policy because his harsh measures were now justified. Cardinal Richelieu’s lasting legacy was that he established raison d'etat, which allows countries today to justify war, laws, and punishments in both foreign and domestic policies.

Clich [|HERE]to learn more.

**Colbert, Jean Baptiste (1619-1683)** Jean Baptiste Colbert was appointed by Louis XIV in 1665 as the minister of finances in France until 1683. He built the administration on the principle that the economy of France should serve the state. He applied this idea, known as mercantilism, using a collection of government policies. He set about making a policy that exported more goods than what was imported; he believed France should be self sufficient in order to be a major power. His developments in the manufacturing business were unprecedented, the commercial classes prospered but, a large amount of the economy was still based on agriculture. The peasants were taxed mercilessly and many emigrated, causing the state’s resources to fall. Colbert left a lasting impression after his death; after the Revolutionary War, the new American government used Colbert’s methods to develop the newly founded country. Click [|here]  to learn more about Jean Baptiste Colbert.

**the Fronde (1648-1653)**  The Fronde (1648-1653) was a civil war in France that was made up of two campaigns called the Fronde Parliamentaire and the Fronde des Nobles. The first was a rebellion of judicial officers against a tax levied against them in 1648. The officers of the Parlement of Paris not only refused to pay the tax, but also condemned previous financial edicts. The Fronde of the Nobles was lead by upset nobles and princes, who resented the power of the monarchy. The Fronde conflicts made it clear that the government would have to compromise with the upper class that controlled many things at both a local and state level. The Fronde badly hurt the French economy as well as young Louis XIV, who came to the conclusion that the only alternative to anarchy was absolute monarchy. The Fronde lead France into the Age of Absolutism, which lead on into the series of political revolutions that shaped it, and by extent the rest of Europe into what it is today.   Click [|here] to find out more information about the Fronde. **intendants** Intendants, used in the 17th and 18th century, were officials appointed by the king who enforced the his will. They were first used in France under Cardinal Richelieu. Intendants were used to centralized the leaders power by taking away the nobles power who were now controlled by intendants. They were used to reform the local and regional financial systems, collect taxes, keep order and deal with military affairs. Intendents were important because they centralized power for a more absolute state and government.

Click here to find out more about intendants.

**Louis XIII (1601-1643)** Louis XIII, son of Henry IV and Marie de Medici was King of France from 1610 to 1643. Because of his father's assassination, Louis had to take power when he was a minor, so at the time his monarchy was dominated by his mother and the career of Cardinal Richelieu. During his reign, Louis' chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu completely dominated the nobility allowing the Louis to have total control over the government. Louis XIII is also known for his dispute with the French Huguenots. In 1627, Louis XIII decided to disband all Protestant military and political independence so that he can further unite France under one religion. Louis and Richelieu's defeat of the Spanish army crushed the rising Hapsburg power and set France on the path to become a leading power in Europe. Louis XIII's reign laid down the foundation of France's absolute monarch.

To learn more click [|here]

**Louis XIV (1638-1715)**  Louis XIV, also known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, ruled as king of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His 72 year reign is the longest recorded by any European monarch, during which France reached the peak of absolutism. While ruling, Louis gained the cooperation of the nobles, which helped increased his ability to tax. He also revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had granted religious freedom to French Huguenots, because he believed religious unity was the key to a secure and absolute state. He was involved in numerous expensive wars that drained France’s funds. While Louis was engaged in several wars and left the treasury empty numerous times, he placed a French king on the Spanish throne, expanded French boundaries, encouraged the arts, and his policies increased trade and commerce. Louis is seen as the “ideal king” and many have tried, and failed, to live up to the expectations he set as the absolute ruler of France. Click [|here] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial; line-height: 21px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> to learn more about Louis XIV.

Mercantilism was an economic system most commonly used by the monarchs during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. The main goal was to increase a nation's wealth by imposing government regulation concerning all of the nation's commercial interests.It was believed that national strength could be maximized by collecting great amounts of gold and silver and maximizing it's exports. This system was popular among the monarchs because it gave their governments more control and more revenue which was a necessity in territorial expansion. Mercantilism allowed the absolute monarchs to gain the most important factor for controlling a nation which was money.
 * mercantilism **

To learn more click[| here]

T<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">he Peace of Utrecht was a series of treaties signed after the War of the Spanish Succession. All of these treaties between Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savory and the Dutch Republic all helped to end the war. The treaty was a sign of the balance of powers in action because France was becoming too powerful and Louis XIV was trying to rule not only France, but also Spain. After the treaty, Louis then recognized his grandson, Philip, as the ruler. This Peace Treaty is very important because it marked the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and it prevented crown of France and Spain to be united. It also preserved the European System of Balance of Powers and prevented France from becoming much too powerful.
 * <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Peace of Utrecht ( <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1713) **

Click [|here] to learn more.

**Versailles (1682-1790)** The Palace of Versailles was the official residence of the King of France and the center of it's government from 1682 until 1790. It was originally a hunting lodge, built in 1624, by Louis XIII until later it was expanded by Louis XIV beginning in 1669. In 1682, Louis XIV choose Versailles as the fixed residence of the sovereigns in order to isolate the nobility from France's government and to ward off any potential threats from his enemies. This allowed Louis XIV strengthen his power and further centralize France's government in order to create his absolute monarch. Versailles became the superb Baroque palace known to the world as a symbol of civilization and pleasure for France.

To learn more click [|here]

**War of Spanish Succession (1701 - 1714)** The War of the Spanish Succession was fought between 1701 and 1714. The war was centered on the question of who would inherit the Spanish throne after Charles II. If an heir was chosen from the Bourbon family, it would lead to unification of the Spanish Kingdoms and France under one monarch, which would upset the balance of power in Europe. Since Louis XIV intended to claim the throne, the English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance, to prevent France from becoming too powerful. The second goal of the Grand Alliance was to check France’s growing commercial activity. The War of the Spanish Succession allowed the nations of Europe to gain experience in international cooperation. The idea of international cooperation can be seen when countries in Europe, South America, and North America rallied together against the Axis Powers during World War II. Clich [|HERE]to learn more

**William of Orange** William of Orange was a powerful Dutch patriot, heir to the dynasty of powerful Dutch figures set out by William the Silent, and eventual the ruler of England. He came to power in England after the turbulent revival of religious and civil strife in the country around the 1670's and 80's. Upon the restoration of the English crown after a great civil war, the throne fell into Catholic hands. The daughter of one of these new Catholic kings, Mary II, along with her powerful husband William of Orange, became involved in a successful attempt at ousting the Catholic regime, replacing it with a more stable one. What followed, under William's new government was the acceptance of the right of Parliament to rule in conjunction with the crown. The reign of William of Orange lead to the dissolution of the idea of a divine monarchy, and established the long running tradition of checking the power of a central figure by way of an equally powerful parliament. This very reasonable ideal was to become prevalent, manifesting itself in the modern world as among the most common forms of government.

[|HERE] is more on the matter.

**__Prussia__**
**Frederick William I (1688-1740)** Frederick William I was the King of Prussia and was a fanatic about his military system. He continued what the former Frederick William, the Great Elector, had already started. He continued centralizing Prussia and continued to create a strong absolutist state. Frederick William I was important because created one of the strongest armies in Europe which helped the great sucsess that he had in centralizing and uniting his States because Prussia was geographically divided. His honor and value that he imposed on his army reflected the values that his subjects had. Although he had built such a strong army, he never had to use it in wars because he was an essentially peaceful man. Fredrick William I brought the rise to Prussia through his centralization and strong army in Prussia.

Click **//[|here]//** to learn more.

**Frederick William, the Great Elector (1640-1688)** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> Fredrick William, the Great Elector of Prussia was part of the Hohenzollern dynasty and was the the first leader of Prussia who was able to unify Prussia. Despite his Calvinist faith, he was tolerant of other religions in Prussia. He diminished the Junkers (nobles in Prussia) power by exempting them from taxes, yet they had to get rid of the Estates which made sure the nobles had no say in what the taxes went to throughout their communities. He united the separated territories by creating road and canal systems. He is known for building his military, which became the model for the Prussian Army. Fredrick William is important because his reforms laid the foundation for Prussia as a kingdom instead of a duchy. His efforts to unify Prussia and build an army set the path for Prussia successful future. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> To learn more about Fredrick William click __here__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">.

**__Russia__**
**Great Northern War (1700-1721)** The Great Northern War was a war where a coalition, lead by <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Tsardom of Russia, successfully fought the supremacy of the Swedish Empire <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">. In the beginning the leaders Peter the Great, Frederick IV, and August II had formed an alliance and soon George I and Frederick William I joined it also. Sweden, lead by Charles XII, was defeated and this absolute monarch, after Charles XII’s death, had come to an end. This war was important because it left Russia as a new major power in the Baltic Sea. Now Russia was a new and large part of European politics and trade which marked a new era for the Russian state.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Click here to learn more about the Great Northern War.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Ivan III, also known as Ivan the Great, ruled as tsar of Russia from 1462 until his death in 1505. It was Ivan who overthrew the Mongolian influence in Russia in 1480 by refusing to pay tribute to the Mongol khan and refusing to recognize him as the ruler of Russia. After driving the Mongols out, he named himself tsar and hereditary ruler of Russia. During his reign, Ivan excluded the boyars, Russian nobles, from all affairs associated with the state, which helped make way for an absolute monarchy in Russia. Under Ivan, Moscow flourished as the center of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which brought in new art, culture, and religion to Russia. Ivan the Great helped free Russia form the “Mongolian Yoke” and point Russia in the direction of an absolute state. Ivan’s actions laid a foundation for what was to become the great Russia. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial; line-height: 21px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Click <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000099; font-family: Arial; line-height: 21px; vertical-align: baseline;">[|here] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial; line-height: 21px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> to learn more about Ivan III.
 * Ivan III, the Great (1440-1505) **

**Ivan IV, the Terrible (1533-1584)** Ivan the Terrible, part of the Rurik dynasty, became the “Grand Prince of Moscow” at age three which led to his mother ruling for him until she died, but the boyars (Russian nobility) tried to control the dynasty and treated Ivan very badly which ultimately led him to hate the boyars. Ivan was the first person to take title of tsar of all of Russia after he overthrew the Mongol control in Russia. He was known for his extreme torture methods especially to the boyars and his devout Orthodox faith. Ivan tried to bring westernize Russia to become part of Europe by moving into Poland and trading with England, France and Holland. Ivan created a secret police called the Oprichniki which diminished the boyars power and could take anything from the peasants. This led the peasants to flee from Russia, which hurt the production and economy in Russia. Ivan the Terrible is important because he is responsible for centralizing Russia’s government and bringing Russia to become part of Europe. <span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;"> To learn more about Ivan IV click here.

**Peter the Great (1672-1725)** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Peter the Great (r.1682-1725) was the tsar of Russia. Before 1696, Peter jointly ruled with his half brother, Ivan V. In attempts to modernize the country, Peter reformed the army, created a navy, and brought the peasants under his control. He is often credited with making Russia rise into a great European power. He built the city of St. Petersburg, which later became the capital of Russia in 1711. Peter succeeded in his goals to modernize Russia, making it similar the other European countries at the time. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; display: block; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">To learn more about Peter the Great, click [|here].

**St. Petersburg** St. Petersburg was founded on May 27, 1703 by Russian tsar Peter the Great; it later became the capital of Russia in the early eighteenth century and then again at the end of the eighteenth to the early twentieth century. St. Petersburg is located in between Estonia and Finland and on the Gulf of Finland. Historically to its close proximity to the Baltic Sea makes it a major Russian port. St. Petersburg is commonly referred to as the most Western Russian city because its location permitted ideas from Eastern Europe into the region. Thus, a new class of educated Russians was formed during Peter the Great’s reign. Currently, St. Petersburg continues to connect Russia to Europe, which allows western philosophies to permeate Russia and mix with the strong Asiatic influence of Russia’s neighboring continent.

Click [|HERE]to learn more about St. Petersburg (click on the links below the short paragraph)

**Time of Troubles**

The time of troubles was a dim period of anarchy in Russian History. It began around 1598, and ended in 1613, all the while Europe was gradually sliding in and out of religious turmoil. The period began upon the death of a Tsar without an heir. The period was characterized by civil war, pretenders to the throne, and horrid famine, responsible for the deaths of two million. When order was eventually re-established, the powerful Romanov family assumed control of the state. Afterwards, Russia's great period of expansion began. The turmoil of this period granted a solid foundation for a new dynasty of Tsars, who would give Russia a strength that lives on into the modern world.

See [|HERE] for further learning.

**__Austria__**
**Pragmatic Sanction (1713)** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The Pragmatic Sanction was issued in 1713 by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI. His goal was to ensure that the throne could be passed, intact, to his daughter, Maria Theresa, after his death. A Salic law prohibited women to inherit the throne, therefore making it crucial that Charles VI changed the law and made attempts to prevent succession issues and challenges to his daughter after his death. Despite Charles’ foresight and the promises made to him by the great European powers, Maria Theresa was challenged with the War of Austrian Succession immediately after assuming the throne. During this war, Prussia acquired Silesia, which was part of Austria; this lead to further feuds between Holy Roman Emperor, Charles of Bavaria, and Maria Theresa. Although the Pragmatic Sanction is often considered a failure, it introduced the idea of a female ruler to the Holy Roman Empire and Maria Theresa was eventually accepted as a legitimate ruler. <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">To learn more about the Pragmatic Sanction, click [|here].

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">**Charles I** (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Charles I was the King of England, Scotland and Ireland. He believed in the Divine Right of Kings which impaired his relationship with Parliament which in turn hurt him as a ruler. His rule was littered with religious conflicts from when he took power March 27 1625 until executed in 1649. Among the religious conflicts were him marrying a catholic princess, allying himself with controversial religious figures such as William Laud and making him Archbishop of Canterbury; these decisions made many men in Parliament weary of trusting Charles I because they thought he was leaning too much towards Catholicism. Such distrust kept Parliament from funding Charles I which led to Charles I ruling without Parliament from 1629-1640. After the first civil war Charles I was expected to give into Parliament’s demands for a Constitutional Monarchy; Charles I remained defiant and tried to forge an alliance with Scotland which sparked another civil war in which he was defeated, and ultimately executed. His execution dealt a huge blow to the idea of the Divine Right of Kings. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">For more information on Charles I click [|here]
 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Civil War and Protectorate __ **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">** Oliver Cromwell ** (25 April 1599 - 3 September 1658)(r. 16 December 1653 - 3 September 1658) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Cromwell ruled England, <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Scotland, and Ireland after the execution of Cha rles I in the style of a military dictatorship he called a Protectorate. He first established a constitution called the Instrument of Government (1653), where he and a council of state had executive power while Parliament gained the authority to raise taxes. Cromwell had continued disputes with Parliament though, so he tore up the document and proclaimed quasi-martial law, which divided England into 12 military districts ruled by major generals. Cromwell was surprisingly tolerant of religious groups though, since he allowed all Christians except Roman Catholics to worship freely. He wasn’t tolerant of Roman Catholics because the biggest threat to his rule was the Irish Confederate Catholic army. Nevertheless Cromwell defeated the Irish in their rebellion and left a lasting Irish hate of the English and a government style that the English never repeated. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> For more info on Oliver Cromwell click [|__here__].

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">King James I was the ruler of Scotland from 1567 until his death; he also ruled over Ireland and England from 1603 until his death (James I succeeded Elizabeth I after her death). James I expressed his view on the superiority of kings in his book, The True Law of Free Monarchies. This opinion led him to numerous quarrels with the English Parliament because of the depleted treasury funds and these disagreements ultimately led to him dissolving Parliament. While he was in power, the Golden Age of English literature continued to flourish with the help of notable writers, like William Shakespeare. One of James I’s most distinguishable contributions to the era was his sponsorship of the translation of the Bible, which bears his name: the King James Version. King James I’s reign gave the world and Protestant faiths one of the most treasured gifts in their religion: a Bible in the vernacular that was accessible to all. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Clich [|HERE]to learn more.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">James I **<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">(June 19, 1566 – March 27, 1625)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">William Laud was the Archbishop of Canterbury during the turbulent era of the Parliamentary revolt. Rising to his role in 1633, he lived on through the civil war until he eventually lost his head as did the king he so fervently supported. William Laud’s most enduring act during the troubled era was possibly what set it off, issuing a new prayer book to the Scottish subjects, who were staunchly Presbyterian, in the hopes of converting them. This lead to their revolt, and ultimately to Charles I’s wish to disband the parliament. Laud’s legacy was a simple one in many cases, setting off the spark that lead to the consumption of the Isles. A symbol of overbearing authority from the crown, it is fitting that he is considered the beginning of the war. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Click here for more tantalizing facts about William Laud.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Laud, William **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Navigation Laws (1651) were a set of laws that required the transportation of English goods to be on English ships. Oliver Cromwell’s goal was to improve colonial development, and to stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France and other European countries. This meant that the act band Dutch ships from carrying goods between other countries and England. It was also made to give greater control over England’s colonies in America. During the era, the act not only facilitated a rapid increase in the size and quality of the Royal Navy, but also was a great boost to the development of the merchant marine. The historical significance of this act was that it assisted in the rapid growth of London, yet it caused resentment in the American colonies and was a major contributed to the American Revolution.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Navigation Acts **

<span class="wiki_link_ext" style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">To learn about the Navigation Acts, Click [|Here].

The Puritan Republic was established during the rule of Oliver Cromwell (1653- 1658) over England, and can be best described as a military dictatorship. Cromwell (a devout Puritan himself) imposed strict Puritan law on the English, such as the banning of most sports and laws restricting clothes that were seen as too elaborate or improper. The Puritan Republic was divided in twelve districts, each one being governed by a major-general whose duty was to enforce Cromwell’s law. This form of government was so disliked that it died with Cromwell in 1660, leaving England ready to restore the monarchy. The people’s disapproval of it proved to be an important influence in the revolutionary Bill of Rights in 1689, as the document prevented having a standing army during peacetime. For more on the Puritan Republic, Click [|here]!
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Puritan Republic **

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">__Restoration and Glorious Revolution__ = <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The Act of Settlement was to settle who would become ruler of England. Parliament and the people of England feared a Catholic ruler therefore this act said that the ruler cannot be Catholic or cannot marry a Catholic. If a person in line for the throne was Catholic or married to a Catholic then they would no longer be in line for the throne. This Act contributed to the era because the throne moved to the Hanover dynasty and all of their non-Catholic heirs. It is important because this act is still used today in England and this act was extended and copied in Scotland through the Acts of Union and Canada. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">To learn more about the Act of Settlement click here. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">The Bill of Rights was presented by Parliament to William and Mary in 1689 and was formed in response to the previous era of Stuart absolutism. The document’s goal was to essentially divide ultimate power in state between the king and Parliament. It also established the principle that the king rules with the consent of the governed, and declared the natural rights and liberties of the subject. The Bill of Right gave the Parliament supremacy over the king, notably by establishing that law made in Parliament could not be suspended by the Crown. To prevent religious division in the future, the document stated that a Roman Catholic could never take the throne. The Bill of Rights is still enforced today, and laid the foundations for the constitutional government that currently exists in England.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Act of Settlement (1701) **
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Bill of Rights **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">For more information on the Bill of Right, Click [|here]!

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Charles II became king of England, Ireland, and Scotland after a period of military dictatorship in England that was headed by Oliver Cromwell. While King, Charles’ attempted to have a harmonious relationship with Parliament. He did this by enacting laws such as the Clarendon code, which increased the power of the Anglican church and therefore pleased Parliament. However, Charles’ broke his trust with the Parliament during the second half of his reign by entering into the secret Dover Alliance, in which he slowly re-Catholicized England and in turn was given money from Louis XIV of France. At the end of his reign, after another issue with Parliament came in which he learned he was the victim in the plot to kill him and his brother, Charles II dissolved the Parliament and ruled without it for the last four years of his reign. While Charles II was able to give interesting viewpoints on the relationship between the crown and the Parliament throughout his reign, his most notable achievement is restoring the monarchy in England after the interregnum that still reigns today.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Charles II (1630-85) **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">To learn more about Charles II, click [|here.]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">**Glorious Revolution (1688)** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"> The Glorious Revolution, also known as the Revolution of 1688, War of the English Succession, and the Bloodless Revolution, is the overthrow of King James II of England by William the Orange and a group of English Parliament members. William’s successful invasion made with a Dutch army caused his rise to power where he jointly ruled with his wife, Mary II of England. King James’ religious tolerance was concerning to many of his subjects because he was Catholic and had close ties with France. The real problem began when he had a son, upsetting the line of succession and displacing his Protestant daughter, Mary, making a Catholic king and dynasty much more likely. Prominent leaders of England invited William of Orange to England, leading to his invasion and James’ overthrow, forcing James and his wife to flee the nation. The revolution ended the chances of Catholicism becoming re-established in England, but it also hurt the Catholics severely by not allowing them to become Parliament members, soldiers, or the spouse of a monarch. Some say that the Glorious Revolution began modern English parliamentary democracy because the monarch has never held absolute power since James’ overthrow. Click [|here] to learn more about the Glorious Revolution.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">** James II (1633-1701) ** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> James II was the brother of Charles II and came to power in in 1685 due to the fact that Charles II didn’t have a son as an heir to the throne. Many people in England were opposed him becoming king because he was a Catholic and due to the fact that he had plans for becoming an absolute monarch. James, just like all of the other Stuart monarchs, believed in the “divine right of kings” principle which lead to the complications with Parliament. James II repealed most of the acts that his brother, Charles II, put in place like the Test Act and gave Catholics the right to hold high authoritative positions. The Parliament tolerated James II until he had a son which ensured a Catholic dynasty. As a reaction to his sudden heir, Parliament asked William of Orange and Mary to invade England which resulted in James II abdicating the throne. Due to the fact that James II left England Parliament was now able to develop a constitutional monarchy that is still used to this day. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Click [|here] to learn more about James II.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> William of Orange invaded England in 1688, known as the Glorious Revolution, and ruled Great Britain jointly with his wife, Mary, until her death in 1694. In 1689, James II returned to Ireland with French troops in hopes on regaining the throne but, William and the English navy forced James to flee back to France. Mary was divided in her loyalty between her husband and father, but chose to side with her husband because she believed what he was doing was for the betterment of England and the church. During their reign, many laws were passed to limit the power of the monarchy and increase the power of Parliament, like the Bill of Rights and the Triennial Act. Monarchs were forbidden from having a standing armies during peacetime, had to get Parliament’s approval to go to war, and needed their consent to tax. Because of the agreement with Parliament, the power of the monarchy slowly decreased after the death of William. The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia was founded by William in 1693 and is the second oldest institution in the United States after Harvard. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Click [|here] to learn more about William and Mary.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">William (1650-1702) and Mary (1662-1694) **